The discovery at Masseria Candelaro in Puglia, Italy, has provided archaeologists with a fascinating glimpse into the complex funerary practices of Neolithic communities in southern Italy. The study, published in the European Journal of Archaeology by Dr. Jess Thompson and her colleagues, sheds light on the intriguing use of human skulls in what appears to be ancestral veneration. This rare find not only deepens our understanding of Neolithic burial customs but also raises profound questions about how early human societies maintained spiritual and social connections with their deceased.
During the Neolithic period (6000–3800 BC), funerary customs in southern Italy were highly varied, reflecting a diverse range of beliefs about death and the afterlife. Archaeological evidence from the region indicates that these communities practiced primary and secondary burial, defleshing, and disarticulation—rituals that involved the careful handling and treatment of human remains. The special treatment of skulls, in particular, suggests that these early societies attributed significant spiritual or symbolic importance to the human head.
Between 1985 and 1993, archaeologists Selene Cassano and Alessandra Manfredini conducted excavations at Masseria Candelaro, primarily focusing on settlement remains. However, their work also uncovered disarticulated human remains and burials scattered across various parts of the site, including external ditches, disused pits, silos, and even abandoned domestic spaces. Among the most remarkable finds was a collection of skulls discovered within Structure Q, a deposit now referred to as the “cranial cache.”
Analysis of the remains revealed that the cache contained the crania of at least 15 individuals, with a possibility of up to 53 individuals. Using skull morphology and tooth wear patterns, researchers determined that at least five individuals were definitively male, six were probably male, and the rest were indeterminate. Notably, there were no children among the deposited skulls. The youngest individual was estimated to be between 12 and 18 years old, while the oldest was likely over 45 years old.
One of the most striking features of these skulls was the evidence of extensive handling and wear, suggesting they had been repeatedly touched, transported, or displayed over long periods of time. The patterns of dry breakage observed on the skulls indicate that these marks could only have occurred post-mortem, further reinforcing the idea that these remains were deliberately curated.
Archaeologists considered two main hypotheses to explain why these skulls had been collected and used over time: as war trophies or as part of ancestor veneration rituals.
The first hypothesis, that the skulls were trophies taken from enemies in warfare, seemed unlikely upon closer examination. Typically, trophy skulls are acquired through violent means, often displaying signs of perimortem trauma, such as fractures or weapon marks. However, Dr. Thompson and her team found no evidence of violent conflict or trauma on the crania, nor were there any signs of cannibalism or decorative modifications, which are sometimes associated with trophy-taking practices.
Additionally, strontium isotope analysis confirmed that the skulls had belonged to local individuals, rather than outsiders who might have been captured in battle. While this does not entirely rule out the possibility of trophy-taking, it strongly suggests an alternative explanation.
The second hypothesis, that the skulls were used in ancestor veneration rituals, aligns more closely with the archaeological and isotopic evidence. Radiocarbon dating of the skulls revealed that the oldest skull in the cache dated back to approximately 5618–5482 BCE, while the youngest skull was dated to around 5476–5336 BCE. This means that the crania were not deposited all at once but were gradually added to the collection over a span of roughly 200 years.
This extended period of curation suggests a tradition that spanned multiple generations—potentially up to eight successive generations—in which specific skulls were chosen, preserved, and ritually deposited. The criteria for selecting these individuals remain uncertain, but some patterns have emerged.
Notably, no children were included in the cache, which is consistent with burial patterns across Neolithic southern Italy, where infant and child burials were rare. This suggests that young children may not have been considered full persons in death or that they were ineligible for ancestor veneration. Additionally, all identified individuals were male, implying that the selection process may have been based on gender, social status, or lineage.
Beyond gender and age, however, the exact criteria for selection remain elusive. It is unknown whether kinship, societal role, or cause of death played a role in determining who became part of the cranial cache. Interestingly, age alone does not appear to have been a deciding factor, as both younger and older individuals were included in the collection. This suggests that seniority or accumulated wisdom may not have been the primary reason for inclusion.
The practice of collecting and curating these skulls came to an end around 5459 BCE, when the crania were deposited one final time in Structure Q and abandoned. The reasons for this shift remain unclear, but researchers have proposed several possible explanations.
One possibility is that this specific form of ancestor veneration was replaced by a different tradition—one that did not involve the long-term curation of skulls. Alternatively, it is possible that the skulls had simply passed beyond living memory. If none of the surviving members of the community could personally remember the individuals whose skulls were being preserved, their significance as ancestors may have diminished, leading to their eventual abandonment.
Dr. Thompson emphasizes that further research is necessary to fully understand how this unique burial deposit fits within the broader funerary landscape of Neolithic Italy. She suggests that future studies should explore regional variations in burial practices, as well as the broader social and cultural factors that influenced decisions about who was venerated and how.
The cranial cache of Masseria Candelaro represents a compelling glimpse into the ritual life and beliefs of Neolithic societies. It challenges modern assumptions about how early humans interacted with their dead and provides valuable insight into the enduring bonds between the living and the deceased. While many questions remain unanswered, this discovery highlights the deep spiritual and cultural significance that human remains held for Neolithic communities—an aspect of human history that continues to fascinate and intrigue researchers today.
More information: Jess E. Thompson et al, The Use-Life of Ancestors: Neolithic Cranial Retention, Caching and Disposal at Masseria Candelaro, Apulia, Italy, European Journal of Archaeology (2024). DOI: 10.1017/eaa.2024.43