The discovery of potentially abundant ice beneath the lunar surface has taken a significant step forward, thanks to the findings from the Indian Chandrayaan-3 mission. This revelation, published in Communications Earth & Environment in 2023, suggests that ice might be present in larger, more widespread areas of the moon’s polar regions than scientists previously believed. The key to this breakthrough lies in the analysis of lunar surface temperatures, which were directly measured by the Chandrayaan-3 mission, offering new insights into the conditions that allow ice to form.
The presence of water on the Moon is a crucial factor for future exploration, especially when considering long-term habitation. Water could be used for drinking, as a potential oxygen source, or to produce fuel. The formation of lunar ice is primarily influenced by the temperature variations on the moon’s surface. Therefore, understanding these temperature fluctuations—especially in the polar regions—becomes fundamental to identifying where ice may be found.
Historically, the only direct temperature measurements of the lunar surface came from the Apollo missions in the 1970s. However, these missions were focused on the lunar equator, and the data collected was far removed from the polar regions, where future lunar exploration will likely focus. The terrain near the equator is relatively flat, and temperature variations due to the slope of the terrain are less pronounced. This limited the scope of the temperature data, as conditions at the poles, where temperature fluctuations are far more extreme, were not well understood.
Durga Prasad and his team used data from the Chandrayaan-3 mission to address this gap in knowledge. The Chandrayaan-3 mission, which successfully landed at the lunar south pole in August 2023, provided the first detailed measurements of lunar temperatures taken directly from the surface at high latitudes. The probe used was ChaSTE (Chandrayaan Surface Thermophysical Experiment), a temperature measurement instrument mounted on the Vikram lander. The lander touched down at a site near the south pole, around 69° south latitude, a region much closer to potential future landing sites for NASA’s Artemis missions.
The Chandrayaan-3 measurements revealed some remarkable temperature patterns at the lunar south pole. On a sun-facing slope with an angle of 6°, the temperature peaked at 355 Kelvin (82°C) during the day and plummeted to 105 Kelvin during the lunar night. However, temperatures on a flatter surface, just one meter from the lander, showed a much lower peak of 332 Kelvin (59°C), indicating significant temperature variations within a relatively small area.
These findings have profound implications for our understanding of the lunar environment. The team’s analysis also suggested that the angle of slopes plays a critical role in determining how warm or cool a given region on the Moon becomes. When the team modeled how surface temperature changes based on slope angle at high latitudes, they found that slopes with angles greater than 14°—especially those facing away from the sun and towards the lunar pole—could maintain temperatures low enough to allow water ice to form and accumulate close to the surface. This new model underscores the possibility that large areas of the Moon, especially near the poles, may be far more favorable for ice formation than previously thought.
The lunar poles, particularly the south pole, have been of great interest for future lunar exploration missions. The region contains permanently shadowed areas that never receive sunlight, making it one of the most extreme environments on the Moon. These shadowed regions are believed to be cold enough for ice to accumulate and remain stable for billions of years. The new data from Chandrayaan-3, however, suggests that ice may not be confined solely to the shadowed craters but could be present more widely, including on sloped terrain that receives intermittent sunlight.
This discovery is important for planning future missions, such as NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to land astronauts at the lunar south pole. If ice is indeed more widespread and accessible than previously assumed, it would significantly ease the challenges of establishing a sustainable lunar base. Instead of needing to transport all water from Earth, astronauts could use in situ resources—harvesting ice directly from the Moon’s surface. Additionally, the ice could be processed to produce water for consumption, oxygen for breathing, and hydrogen for rocket fuel, making it a vital resource for long-term missions and habitation.
The implications of these findings extend beyond just the practicality of human space exploration. The presence of lunar ice may offer further clues about the Moon’s history and its relationship to Earth and the broader solar system. Scientists believe that lunar ice may have been deposited over billions of years, possibly from comets or other sources, and could contain information about the early solar system. Studying these deposits could provide a better understanding of the Moon’s evolution and the dynamics of space weather.
The results from Chandrayaan-3 also highlight the significance of using modern technology and instruments to explore the Moon’s surface. Unlike the Apollo missions, which were limited by the technology of the time, the Chandrayaan-3 mission employed advanced instruments capable of making high-precision measurements. This has allowed scientists to generate a much more detailed understanding of lunar surface temperatures, which is essential for both scientific research and future exploration.
More information: Durga Prasad, Higher surface temperatures near south polar region of the Moon measured by ChaSTE experiment on-board Chandrayaan-3, Communications Earth & Environment (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s43247-025-02114-6. www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02114-6