A groundbreaking study by an international team of scientists from University College Cork (UCC), the University of Connecticut, and the Natural History Museum of Vienna has shed new light on how plants responded to one of Earth’s most catastrophic climate events—the End-Permian mass extinction that occurred 250 million years ago. Their research, published in GSA Bulletin, reconstructs the slow and tumultuous recovery of ecosystems after an era of extreme global warming, offering valuable insights into the resilience of plant life and the long-term consequences of climate change.
Unraveling the Aftermath of Earth’s Worst Mass Extinction
The End-Permian event stands as the most severe extinction in Earth’s history, wiping out more than 80% of ocean species and drastically reshaping terrestrial ecosystems. While its effects on marine life have been extensively studied, the impact on land-based life—especially plants—has remained more elusive. By analyzing fossil plants and geological formations from the Sydney Basin in eastern Australia, the researchers have pieced together a detailed timeline of ecological collapse, adaptation, and gradual recovery that spanned millions of years.
Their findings reveal a complex and unsteady process of reforestation. The devastation following the mass extinction was profound, but some plant species managed to survive, adapt, and lay the foundation for future ecosystems. However, the road to recovery was anything but smooth, as further climatic upheavals created new challenges for these early survivors.
Survivors and Setbacks: The Struggle of Ancient Forests
Immediately after the End-Permian catastrophe, the first plants to reclaim the devastated landscapes were conifers, ancestors of modern-day pine trees. These hardy trees initially thrived, forming the first semblances of forests in the wake of mass extinction. However, their resurgence was short-lived.
Approximately two million years later, Earth entered another brutal phase of climate change known as the Late Smithian Thermal Maximum. During this period, global temperatures soared to extreme levels, pushing the planet to conditions even hotter than those of the initial extinction event. The heat proved overwhelming for the recovering conifer forests, leading to their collapse.
As large trees struggled to survive, tough, shrubby plants—similar to modern clubmosses—took over. These hardy plants could withstand the harsh conditions better than trees, but their dominance indicated that the ecosystem was still far from fully recovering. This period of scorching heat and unstable vegetation lasted for an astonishing 700,000 years, delaying the re-establishment of stable forest ecosystems.
The Turning Point: Cooling and the Rise of Seed Fern Forests
A dramatic shift came with the Smithian-Spathian Event, a global cooling period that finally brought relief from extreme temperatures. This climatic shift allowed new types of vegetation to take hold, particularly seed ferns—large, unusual plants that would eventually dominate Earth’s landscapes for millions of years.
These seed ferns, which bore no direct relation to modern ferns, were well-suited to the post-extinction world. They thrived in the cooler conditions, gradually stabilizing the land ecosystem and paving the way for the diverse forests that would characterize the Mesozoic era—a time best known for the rise of the dinosaurs.
The research highlights a crucial point: while forests did return after the End-Permian extinction, the species that made up these forests were completely different from those that had existed before. This underscores the fact that while ecosystems can recover, extinction itself is permanent.
Dr. Chris Mays, leader of the Mass Extinction Group at UCC, explains: “The term ‘recovery’ can be misleading. Forests recover eventually, but extinction is forever.” This insight carries profound implications for modern biodiversity conservation, as it emphasizes the long-lasting consequences of mass extinctions.
Lessons for Today: How Past Climate Disasters Inform Our Future
Understanding how ancient plant ecosystems endured extreme climate swings is more than an exercise in historical curiosity—it provides crucial lessons for how modern ecosystems might cope with today’s climate crisis.
Plants are not just passive elements of the environment; they play a critical role in stabilizing Earth’s climate. They act as natural carbon sinks, absorbing CO₂ from the atmosphere, and they form the foundation of land-based food webs. Disrupting these ecological systems, as seen in the aftermath of the End-Permian extinction, can trigger cascading effects that persist for hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of years.
Lead author Marcos Amores, a researcher at UCC, emphasizes the importance of this study: “This research highlights how crucial plants are, not just as the base of land food chains, but also as natural carbon sinks that stabilize Earth’s climate. The disruption of these systems can have impacts lasting hundreds of thousands of years, so protecting today’s ecosystems is more important than ever.”
In an era of deforestation, habitat loss, and accelerating climate change, the past serves as a warning. The End-Permian event illustrates that ecosystem collapse is not just a temporary setback but a long, arduous process of recovery that can take millions of years to unfold. While life eventually finds a way, the species lost along the way do not return.
The Unsung Heroes of Earth’s Survival
The story of Earth’s ancient plant life is one of resilience, adaptation, and survival against the odds. Without these early plant pioneers reclaiming the land, the evolution of later ecosystems—including the rise of dinosaurs and eventually mammals—would not have been possible.
This research serves as a stark reminder that plants are the unsung heroes of life on Earth. From ancient conifers to the towering forests of today, they have shaped the world in ways we often take for granted. As we face modern environmental challenges, understanding the lessons of the past can help guide us toward a more sustainable future—one where we recognize and protect the vital role that plants play in maintaining the delicate balance of our planet.
More information: Amores, M., et al. Age-controlled south polar floral trends show a staggered Early Triassic gymnosperm recovery following the end-Permian event., Geological Society of America Bulletin (2025). DOI: 10.1130/B38017.1