The Huns, a nomadic group that suddenly appeared in Europe during the 370s, are often regarded as one of the most influential yet short-lived empires in the history of the continent. Their presence played a crucial role in the downfall of the Western Roman Empire and significantly impacted European history. However, scholars have long debated the origins of the Huns, specifically whether they were directly descended from the Xiongnu, a powerful nomadic empire that dominated Central Asia hundreds of years earlier. This question has sparked a great deal of research, with the hope of uncovering links between the two groups through genetic analysis.
The Xiongnu Empire dissolved around 100 CE, and the Huns did not appear in Europe until the 370s, leaving a gap of about 300 years between the two empires. As a result, one of the major questions researchers have grappled with is whether the Huns were descendants of the Xiongnu, or if the two groups were merely part of the same broader cultural and ethnic continuum in the Eurasian steppes. This debate has persisted for centuries, but recent advancements in DNA analysis have provided new insights into the genetic connections, or lack thereof, between these ancient populations.
To address these questions, a team of geneticists, archaeologists, and historians came together as part of the HistoGenes project to analyze the DNA of individuals who lived between the 2nd century BCE and the 6th century CE. The researchers specifically focused on individuals from three key regions: the Mongolian steppe, Central Asia, and the Carpathian Basin in Central Europe. These locations corresponded to the periods when the Xiongnu Empire and the Huns were at their height, and they provided a unique opportunity to explore the genetic legacy of these nomadic empires.
The researchers sequenced the genomes of 370 individuals, including 35 newly sequenced genomes from key sites in Kazakhstan and the Carpathian Basin. These sites spanned a broad temporal range, from the 3rd–4th centuries CE in Kazakhstan to the 5th–6th centuries CE in the Carpathian Basin. Among the samples analyzed, special attention was paid to “eastern-type” burials from the Hun period, which were characterized by distinct steppe influences typically associated with nomadic traditions. These burials have long been seen as important markers of the Huns’ presence in Central Europe.
The results of the study were both surprising and enlightening. One of the most notable findings was that, despite the Huns’ significant political influence in Europe, there was no large-scale migration of East Asian or steppe-descended populations into the Carpathian Basin after their arrival. Instead, the study identified a small but distinct subset of individuals buried in “eastern-type” graves who exhibited significant East Asian genetic markers, suggesting that a few of the individuals buried in these graves may have had direct ancestral ties to populations from the Mongolian steppes.
The researchers’ advanced genetic analysis included a comparison of shared DNA segments between individuals from different periods and regions, known as identical-by-descent (IBD). The most remarkable discovery came when they found that a small group of individuals from the Hun period in Europe shared IBD links with some of the highest-ranking individuals from the late Xiongnu Empire. These connections provided compelling evidence that some of the Huns in Europe may have had genetic ties to the elite of the Xiongnu Empire, including individuals buried in the most prestigious Xiongnu graves, such as those found in the largest terrace tombs of the Mongolian steppe.
Co-first author Guido Alberto Gnecchi-Ruscone, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, expressed his surprise at this finding. “It came as a surprise to discover that few of these Hun-period individuals in Europe share IBD links with some of the highest-ranking imperial elite individuals from the late Xiongnu Empire,” he said. “These connections also include an individual from the largest terrace tomb ever discovered in a Xiongnu context.” This finding has important implications for our understanding of the migration and interaction of ancient nomadic groups, suggesting that some Huns in Europe may have retained ties to the Xiongnu, even after centuries of separation.
However, while these direct connections between the Xiongnu and the Huns are fascinating, the study also highlighted the complex and heterogeneous nature of the Hun population in Europe. Co-first author Zsófia Rácz from Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest noted that the DNA and archaeological evidence pointed to a “patchwork” of ancestries among the Hun population. This suggested that rather than a mass migration of East Asian peoples, the Huns in Europe were the result of a complex process of mobility and interaction, where various groups from across Eurasia mixed and contributed to the population of the Hun Empire.
This finding challenges earlier theories that the Huns were a homogeneous group with a single, East Asian origin. Instead, the research paints a more nuanced picture of the Huns as a diverse and dynamic population, shaped by the blending of different genetic, cultural, and ethnic influences over many generations. As co-first author Zsófia Rácz explains, “DNA and archaeological evidence reveal a patchwork of ancestries, pointing to a complex process of mobility and interaction rather than a mass migration.”
The study also offers important insights into the differences between the Huns and other nomadic groups, such as the Avars, who arrived in Europe two centuries after the Huns. The Avars, unlike the Huns, are believed to have come directly to Europe from their East-Asian empire, and genetic evidence suggests that many of their descendants continued to carry significant East Asian ancestry well into the 8th century. In contrast, the Huns’ migration was far more gradual, involving generations of movement across the Eurasian steppe and interaction with a variety of different populations. As co-corresponding author Walter Pohl of the Austrian Academy of Sciences points out, “The Avars came directly to Europe after their East-Asian empire had been destroyed by the Turks, and many of their descendants still carried considerable East Asian ancestry until the end of their rule in c. 800. The ancestors of Attila’s Huns took many generations on their way westward and mixed with populations across Eurasia.”
The implications of this study extend beyond the Huns’ origins. It sheds light on how ancient societies in Europe, especially those in the Carpathian Basin, responded to the arrival of new groups and adapted to the changing political and cultural landscape. Co-corresponding author Zuzana Hofmanová of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology observed that although the Huns had a dramatic impact on the political landscape of Europe, their genetic footprint outside of elite burial contexts was relatively limited. “The population as a whole appears to be predominantly of European origin and have continued local traditions, with some newly arrived steppe influences woven in,” she explained.
From a broader perspective, this research highlights the power of cutting-edge genetic techniques in combination with archaeology and history to resolve long-standing questions about the origins and composition of past populations. Co-corresponding author Johannes Krause, director of the Department of Archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, emphasized how the study demonstrates the potential of genetic research to shed new light on the intricate and often complex connections that existed between different regions of Eurasia in ancient times. “This study underscores how cutting-edge genetic research, in combination with careful exploration of the archaeological and historical context, can resolve centuries-old debates about the composition and origin of past populations,” he said.
More information: Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto et al, Ancient genomes reveal trans-Eurasian connections between the European Huns and the Xiongnu Empire, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2025). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2418485122. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418485122